doi:10.1038/s41377-021-00551-4

Silicon/2D-material photodetectors: from near-infrared to mid-infrared

doi: 10.1038/s41377-021-00551-4

Liu Chaoyue¹,
Guo Jingshu^1
,,
Yu Laiwen¹,
Li Jiang¹,
Zhang Ming^{1, 2},
Li Huan^1
,,
Shi Yaocheng^{1, 2},
Dai Daoxin^{1, 2
, ,}

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Corresponding author: Daoxin Dai (dxdai@zju.edu.cn)

摘要

Abstract: Two-dimensional materials (2DMs) have been used widely in constructing photodetectors (PDs) because of their advantages in flexible integration and ultrabroad operation wavelength range. Specifically, 2DM PDs on silicon have attracted much attention because silicon microelectronics and silicon photonics have been developed successfully for many applications. 2DM PDs meet the imperious demand of silicon photonics on low-cost, high-performance, and broadband photodetection. In this work, a review is given for the recent progresses of Si/2DM PDs working in the wavelength band from near-infrared to mid-infrared, which are attractive for many applications. The operation mechanisms and the device configurations are summarized in the first part. The waveguide-integrated PDs and the surface-illuminated PDs are then reviewed in details, respectively. The discussion and outlook for 2DM PDs on silicon are finally given.

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Figure 1. Summary of the working mechanisms of 2DM PDs.

a–f Photon-type mechanisms: a The photovoltaic (PV) effect. The photo-excited e-h pairs driven by the built-in electric fields contribute to the photocurrents. b The internal photon emission (IPE) effect. For example, in a G-Si Schottky junction, the photo-excited hot carriers in graphene emitted over the Schottky barrier contribute to the photocurrent. c The direct tunneling (DT). d The Fowler-Nordheim (F-N) tunneling. e The photoconductive (PC) effect. The carrier density increment leads to the change of channel conductivity in a phototransistor. f The photo-gating (PG) effect. The photo-induced gating leads to the change of the channel conductivity in a phototransistor. g The thermal relaxation process in 2DMs. The carrier–carrier scattering results in the increment of the electron temperature T_e, and then the optical/acoustic phonon emissions lead to the increment of lattice temperature T_L. h, i Thermal-type mechanisms: h The bolometric (BOL) effect. The increment of T_e or T_L can be extracted by different read-outs. i The photo-thermoelectric (PTE) effect. Here Seebeck effect plays a major role. In the present example, S₁ and S₂ are respectively the positive and negative Seebeck coefficients.

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Figure 2. The relation between the working mechanisms and the configurations of the 2DM PDs.

Both metal-2DM-metal and metal-2DM+X-metal configurations have a phototransistor structure featuring a 2DM channel. The former has a pure 2DM channel, while the latter has a 2DM channel contacted with another specific material "X", such as zero-dimensional (0D) quantum dots, 1D carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 2DMs, and even bulk materials. In the 2DM-heterostructure configuration, the electrodes are connected to different materials. PV photovoltaic, IPE internal photon emission, DT direct tunneling, F-N tunneling Fowler-Nordheim (F-N) tunneling, PC photoconductive, PG Photo-gating, BOL bolometric, PTE photo-thermoelectric, QDs quantum dots, CNT carbon nanotubes.

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Figure 3. The waveguide-integrated Si/2DM PDs with metal-2DM-metal configurations.

a A graphene plasmonic PD working with the PV effect. b A plasmonically enhanced graphene PD working on the BOL effect. c A horizontally asymmetric graphene PD with one gate electrode based on the PTE effect. d A microring resonator-integrated two-gate graphene PD based on the PTE effect. e The Si-G hybrid plasmonic waveguide PDs operating at 1.55 and 2 μm. f A two-gate MoTe₂ PD operating at 1.16 μm based on the PV effect. g A strain-engineered MoTe₂ PD integrated on a microring resonator operating at 1.55 μm. h A PtSe₂ PD operating at 1.55 μm. i A black-phosphorus PD operating at 1.55 μm with 3 GHz bandwidth. j A black-phosphorus PD operating at 2 μm. k A PG effect-based black phosphorus PD operating at the wavelength band of 3.68–4.03 μm. Figures reproduced with permissions from: a ref. ¹⁰⁸, ^©2020 De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); b ref. ¹¹⁹, ^©2018 American Chemical Society; c ref. ⁶⁰, ^©2015 American Chemical Society; d ref. ¹¹⁵, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); e ref. ⁵⁸, ^©2020 Springer Nature Limited, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); f ref. ⁶⁴ ^©2017 Springer Nature Limited. g ref. ⁷⁰, ^©2020 Springer Nature Limited; h ref. ¹²¹, ^©2020 American Chemical Society; i ref. ⁷¹, ^©2015 Springer Nature Limited; j ref. ⁷², ^©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. k ref. ⁶⁸, ^©2018 American Chemical Society. Further permissions related to the figures should be directed to the copyright holders.

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Figure 4. The waveguide-integrated Si/2DM PDs with heterostructure configurations.

a A high-speed G-Si PD with p-i-n doping distributions for both Si and graphene. b A Si-G plasmonic Schottky photodetector. c A MoTe₂-G heterostructure PD. d A G-hBN-G heterostructure PD. Figures reproduced with permissions from: a ref. ¹²², ^©2018 Springer Nature Limited, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); b ref. ⁹⁹, ^©2016 American Chemical Society; c ref. ⁹⁰, ^©2020 Springer Nature Limited; d ref. ¹²³; ^©2019 The Optical Society, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Further permissions related to the figures should be directed to the copyright holders.

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Figure 5. Performance summary for the waveguide-integrated Si/2DM PDs.

■: photovoltaic (PV) effect, ●: photo-thermoelectric (PTE) effect, ▲: bolometric (BOL) effect, ♦: photoconductive (PC) effect, : Photo-gating (PG) effect, ◄: tunneling effects, ►: internal photon emission.(IPE) effect; blue: metal-graphene-metal (M-G-M); green: metal-TMDC-metal; black: metal-BP-metal; red: 2DM-heterostructure

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Figure 6. The surface-illuminated Si/2DM PDs with metal-2DM-metal configuration.

a A wide-band plasmonic enhanced graphene PD and the measured responsivity/photoconductive-gain. b A cavity-coupled graphene bolometer with Johnson noise read-out. Left: the 3D schematic. Right: the NEP and thermal relaxation time of hot electrons as a function of lattice temperature. c A metal-graphene+X-metal configuration PD, for which X is carbon nanotube. d A short-wave infrared graphene PD with a plasmonic enhanced structure on channel. e A ferroelectric polarization gating MoS₂ photodetector with an operation wavelength extended to 1.55 μm. f A mid-infrared black-phosphorus PD with a high gain. g A mid-infrared black-phosphorus PD with an operation wavelength extended to 7.7 μm by applying a vertical electric field. Left: the 3D schematic. Right: the NEP and dark current at different wavelengths. h The specific detectivities of the mid-infrared black phosphorus PD and black-PAs-alloy PD as a function of wavelength. i A short-wave infrared tellurene PD. Figures reproduced with permissions from: a ref. ¹²⁸, ^©2018 Springer Nature Limited, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); b ref. ⁵³, ^©2018 Springer Nature Limited; c ref. ⁷⁶, ^©2015 Springer Nature Limited, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); d ref. ⁷⁸, ^©2017 American Chemical Society; e ref. ⁸¹. ^©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. f ref. ⁶⁷, ^©2016 American Chemical Society; g ref. ²⁹, ^©2017 Springer Nature Limited, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); h ref. ¹²⁹, ^©2017 American Chemical Society. i ref. ¹³¹, ^©2019 American Chemical Society. Further permissions related to the figures should be directed to the copyright holders.

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Figure 7. Surface-illuminated Si/2DM PDs with heterostructure configurations.

a A MoS₂-G-WSe₂ PD. b A G-WSe₂-G PD with the IPE effect.c A colloidal quantum dot-graphene (CQD-G) hybrid PD with tunneling layer. d A G-Si heterostructure position-sensitive PD operating at near-infrared wavelengths. e A G-Si PD operating at 1.55 μm. f A G/vertical-MoSe₂/Si heterojunction PD. g A mid-infrared WS₂-HfS₂ heterostructure PD based on interlayer excitons. h A mid-infrared BP-MoS₂ heterostructure PD. i A mid-infrared BP-InSe avalanche photodetector. Figures reproduced with permissions from: a ref. ⁸⁶, ^©2016 American Chemical Society; b ref. ¹⁰⁰, ^©2016 Springer Nature Limited, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); c ref. ¹⁰³, ^©2020 American Chemical Society; d ref. ¹³⁵, ^©2018 The Optical Society, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); e ref. ¹³⁶, ^©2017 American Chemical Society; f ref. ¹³⁹, ^©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/); g ref. ¹³ ^©2020 Springer Nature Limited. h ref. ⁹⁴, ^©2018 Springer Nature Limited; i ref. ⁹⁷, ^©2019 Springer Nature Limited. Further permissions related to the figures should be directed to the copyright holders.

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Figure 8. The image sensors based on Si/2DM PDs.

a An image sensor array based on graphene-CMOS integration, covering ultraviolet, visible and infrared light. Left: the schematic of the graphene transfer process on wafer. Right: the schematic of the graphene/colloidal quantum dot PDs integrated with CMOS read-outs. b Concept of a focal stack light-field imaging system using graphene transparent PDs (inset). c An artificial neural network image-sensor based on a reconfigurable WSe₂ PD array. Left: the schematic of the PD array. Right: the schematic of the single-element WSe₂ PD. d A multispectral imaging system based on a black phosphorus PD. Figures reproduced with permissions from: a ref. ¹²⁴, ^©2017 Springer Nature Limited; b ref. ¹²⁶, ^©2020 Springer Nature Limited; c ref. ¹²⁵, ^©2020 Springer Nature Limited; d ref. ¹²⁷, ^©2014 American Chemical Society. Further permissions related to the figures should be directed to the copyright holders.

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Figure 9. Development of Si/2DM PDs.

The tasks, goals, and issues and challenges are summarized from the perspective of the material level, the device level, the circuit level, as well as the commercialization level.

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Table 1. Summary of waveguide-integrated Si/2DM PDs

Structure	λ	Mechanism	Responsivity	\|Bias voltage\|	Bandwidth^a	Refs.
M-G-M	~1.35 μm	PV	0.2 A W⁻¹	0.5 V	–	¹⁰⁶
M-G-M	~1.35 μm	BOL	0.67 A W⁻¹	0.5 V	–	¹⁰⁶
M-G-M	~1.55 μm	PV	7–50^b mA W⁻¹	0 V	3–110 GHz	^{107, 109, 110, 111}
			57–108 mA W⁻¹	1 V
			360 mA W⁻¹	2.2 V
M-G-M	~1.55 μm	PTE	35–78 mA W⁻¹	0 V	12–67 GHz	^{60, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117}
M-G-M	~1.55 μm	PTE	3.5–90 V W⁻¹	0 V	12–67 GHz	^{60, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117}
M-G-M	~1.55 μm	BOL	90–500 mA W⁻¹	0.3–0.4 V	40–110 GHz	^{58, 119}
M-G-M	~2 μm	BOL	45–70 mA W⁻¹	0.3 V	20 GHz	⁵⁸
M-G-M	~3.8 μm	No stated	2.2 mA W⁻¹	1 V	–	¹⁶⁰
M-MoTe₂-M	~1.16 μm	PV	4.8 mA W⁻¹	0 V	200 MHz	⁶⁴
M-MoTe₂-M	~1.55 μm	PC	468 mA W⁻¹	2 V	35 MHz	⁷⁰
M-PtSe₂-M	~1.55 μm	PC	12 mA W⁻¹	8 V	35 GHz	¹²¹
M-BP-M	~1.55 μm	PV	135–657 mA W⁻¹	0.4–2 V	3 GHz	⁷¹
M-BP-M	~1.55 μm	PC	6.25 A W⁻¹	0.7 V	150 MHz	¹⁶¹
M-BP-M	3.68 μm	PG	0.7–23 A W⁻¹	1 V	–	⁶⁸
M-BP-M	4 μm	PG	0.5–2 A W⁻¹	1 V	–	⁶⁸
M-BP-M	~3.825 μm	PG	0.1–11.31 A W⁻¹	0.5 V	550 Hz	⁶⁹
M-BP-M	2 μm	PV	0.026–0.307 A W⁻¹	0.4 V	0.5–1.33 GHz	⁷²
MoTe₂-G	~1.31 μm	PV; PC	23–400 mA W⁻¹	3 V	0.5 GHz	⁸⁹
MoTe₂-G	1.26–1.34 μm	PV; PC	~ 7–150 mA W⁻¹	0.6 V	12–46 GHz	⁹⁰
G-hBN-G	~1.55 μm	DT; F-N tunneling	240 mA W⁻¹	10 V	28 GHz	¹²³
G-Si	2.75 μm	IPE	0.13 A W⁻¹	1.5 V	–	⁹⁸
Au-G-Si	~1.55 μm	IPE	85 mA W⁻¹	1 V	–	⁹⁹
G-Si	~1.55 μm	IPE	11 mA W⁻¹	0 V	> 50 GHz	¹²²
PV photovoltaic, IPE internal photon emission, DT direct tunneling, F-N tunneling, Fowler-Nordheim (F-N) tunneling, PC photoconductive, PG Photo-gating, BOLbolometric, PTE photo-thermoelectric. ^aThe measured bandwidths may be setup limited. ^bIn ref. ¹⁰⁷, the graphene has two or three layers.

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Table 2. Performances of surface-illuminated Si/2DM PDs at the NIR and MIR range.

Configuration	Year	Structure	λ(μm)	Mechanism	Responsivity@input power (λ)	\|Bias\|	Bandwidth/Response time^a	*D(Jones)@T^b**	Refs.
Metal-2DM-metal	2009	M-G-M	~1.55	PV	0.5 mA W⁻¹	-	> 40 GHz	-	⁵⁹
	2010	M-G-M	~1.55	PV	6.1 mA W⁻¹@0.4 V	-	16 GHz	~1.08 × 10^5c	¹⁴¹
	2018	M-G-M	0.8-20	PV PC	0.6-0.075 A W⁻¹@2.5-50 μW (0.8 μm)	0.02 V	50 GHz (0.8 μm)	~1.5-15 × 10⁸(3-20 μm)^*	¹²⁸
	2018	M-G-M	0.8-20	PV PC	11.5 A W⁻¹@2.5 μW (20 μm)	0.02 V	50 GHz (0.8 μm)	~1.5-15 × 10⁸(3-20 μm)^*	¹²⁸
	2013	M-GQDs-M	0.532-10.3	PG	0.2-1.25 A W⁻¹(0.53 μm)	0.02 V	-	-	¹⁴²
	2012	M-G (bilayer)-M	0.658-10.6	BOL	2 × 10⁵ V W⁻¹(10.6 μm)	-	> 1 GHz (1.03 μm)	~3.03 × 10¹⁰(10.6 μm)@5 K^*	^51d
	2018	M-G-M	1.531	BOL	-	-	30 ps@5 K (read out-limited)	~3.5 × 10⁷@5 K	⁵³
	2020	M-G-M	3.4-12	BOL	1.4-5.1 mA W⁻¹	0.5 V	47 MHz	~7.22 × 10⁴-2.65 × 10^5*	¹⁶²
	2017	M-BP-M	2.5-3.7	PV; PC	160 mA W⁻¹@25 μW 22 mA W⁻¹@785 μW	0.2 V	> 0.88 MHz	-	¹⁶³
	2017	M-bPAs-M	2-8	PV	180-20.3 mA W⁻¹@0.07-44.3 μW (3.66 μm)	0 V	~0.65 kHz (4.03 μm)~11.4 kHz (1.55 μm)	> 1.06 × 10⁸(2-8 μm)	¹³⁰
	2017	M-BP-M	3.4	PC	518 mA W⁻¹@40 μW, 77 K	1.2 V	> > 10 kHz (1.3 GHz estimated)	~2.67 × 10^10*	²⁹
			5		30 mA W⁻¹@50 μW, 77 K			~2.29 × 10^7*
			7.7		2.2 mA W⁻¹@100 μW, 77 K			~1.19 × 10^6*
	2017	M-BP-M M-bPAs-M	1-4.6	PC	~11 A W⁻¹@RT (3.6 μm)	0.5 V	117 kHz (0.98 μm)	1 × 10¹⁰-6 × 10¹⁰@1V	¹²⁹
	2016	M-BP-M	3.39	PG	82 A W⁻¹@1.6 nW 0.9 A W⁻¹@30 μW	0.5 V	1.1-2.2 kHz	~1.2 × 10^8*	⁶⁷
	2018	M-BP-M	0.514-1.8	PG	5 × 10³-6 × 10⁴A W⁻¹@1.6 W cm⁻², 70 K	2 V	~35 kHz (0.632 μm)	~2.1 × 10¹⁰(0.632 μm)	¹⁴³
	2018	M-BP-M	1.55	PG	230 A W⁻¹@11 nW	1 V	~73 Hz	-	¹⁴⁴
	2018	M-bAsP-M	3.4	PG PTE PV	190 mA W⁻¹	1 V	-	~2.86 × 10^7*	¹⁶⁴
			5		16 mA W⁻¹			~2.16 × 10^6*
			7.7		1.2 mA W⁻¹			~1.86 × 10^5*
	2018	M-Te-M	1.4-2.4	PG	27 A W⁻¹@78 K (1.7 μm)16 A W⁻¹@297 K (1.7 μm)	5 V	-	2.9 × 10⁹@RT 2.6 × 10¹¹@78 K	³³
	2019	M-Te-M	0.52	PG	383 A W⁻¹@1.6 nW	1 V	~1 kHz@0.95 nW	-	¹³¹
			1.55	PV	~19.2 mA W⁻¹@0~30 μW		37 MHz@39-250 μW
			3.39	PG	~18.9 mA W⁻¹@0-30 μW		35 Hz@30 μW
	2019	M-ReS₂-M	0.8−1.2	BOL	380-350 A W⁻¹	0.1 V	~117 Hz	~1.3 × 10¹⁰	¹⁶⁵
	2020	M-PtSe₂-M	0.765-1.55	PC PV	0.19 mA W⁻¹(1.55 μm)	5 V	4.5-17 GHz	~1.2 × 10⁷(1.55 μm)*	³⁵
Metal-2DM+X-metal	2014	M-G+Ta₂O₅+G-M	1.2	PG	20 A W⁻¹	1 V	-	-	¹⁶⁶
	2014	M-G+Ta₂O₅+G-M	2.4	PG	0.45 A W⁻¹	1 V	-	-	¹⁶⁶
	2015	M-G+CNT-M	0.405-1.55	PG	20 A W⁻¹@0.3 μW (1.55 μm)	0.5 V	~3.5 kHz (0.65 μm)	-	⁷⁶
	2017	M-G+SiQDs-M	0.375-1.87	PG	1.2-22 × 10⁸ A W⁻¹@0.2 μW cm⁻²	1 V	sub-Hz scale	~10¹³@RT	⁷⁵
	2017	M-G+SiQDs-M	2.5-3.9	PG	0.22-44.9 A W⁻¹@375 mW cm⁻²	1 V	sub-Hz scale	~10⁵@77 K	⁷⁵
	2017	M-BP+G-M	1.55	PG	1300 A W⁻¹@11 nW 210 A W⁻¹@211 nW	1 V	~88 Hz	-	⁴⁶
	2017	M-Au+G+Si-M	~1.55	PG	83 A W⁻¹@0.3 μW	10 V	~580 kHz	~10⁸	⁷⁸
2DM-heterostructure	2016	G-WSe₂-G	~1.55	IPE	0.12 mA W⁻¹	0.6 V	-	-	¹⁰⁰
	2016	WSe₂-G-MoS₂	0.4-2.4	PV	0.1-1 A W⁻¹(1.3-2.4 μm)	1 V	~7 kHz (0.53-0.94 μm)	2 × 10⁹-2 × 10¹⁰	⁸⁶
	2018	G-GaSe-G	0.73	IPE	10 mA W⁻¹	1 V	3.9 Hz	~5.76 × 10^7c	¹⁶⁷
			1.33		3 mA W⁻¹		2.2 Hz	~1.73 × 10^7c
			1.55		0.05 mA W⁻¹		1.5 Hz	~2.9 × 10^5c
	2019	G-hBN-G	~0.532	IPE F-N tunneling	13 μA W⁻¹	Few volts	-	5 × 10¹⁴	¹⁰¹
	2019	G-hBN-G	~1.55	IPE F-N tunneling	70 nA W⁻¹	Few volts	-	-	¹⁰¹
	2017	G-Si	~1.55	IPE	~20 mA W⁻¹	10 V	-	5.1 × 10⁷	¹³⁶
	2018	G-Si	2	IPE	0.16 mA W⁻¹	0 V	-	2.56 × 10⁷	¹³⁸
	2019	G nanowalls-Au-Si	1.55	IPE	21 mA W⁻¹@0.19 μW	1 V	~0.95 kHz	1.6 × 10⁹	¹⁶⁸
	2019	G nanowalls-Au-Si	3.5	IPE	0.44 μA W⁻¹	0 V	-	-	¹⁶⁸
	2020	CQDs+G-TiO₂-Ti	1.625	PG	70 A W⁻¹	0.5 V	1.1 kHz	~8.1 × 10^7*e	¹⁰³
	2020	WS₂-HfS₂	4.3-10	ILE	~92.4-3510 A W⁻¹@0.5 nW	1.5 V	100-200 Hz	7 × 10¹²(7 μm)	¹³
	2016	BP-MoS₂	~0.532	PV PG	22.3 A W⁻¹@1 nW	3 V	-	3.1 × 10¹¹	⁹²
	2016	BP-MoS₂	1.55	PV PG	153.4 mA W¹@1 nW	3 V	~23.3 kHz	2.13 × 10⁹	⁹²
	2017	WS₂-BP-MoS₂	~0.532	PV PG	6.32 A W⁻¹@13.5 nW	3 V	-	1.01 × 10⁹	⁹³
	2017	WS₂-BP-MoS₂	1.55	PV PG	1.12 A W⁻¹@13.5 nW	3 V	-	1.74 × 10⁸	⁹³
	2017	BP-MoS₂	2-8	PV	115.4-216.1 mA W⁻¹(2.36-4.29 μm)	0 V	-	> 4.9 × 10⁹(3-5 μm)	¹³⁰
	2018	BP-MoS₂	1.6-4	PV	0.1-0.9 A W⁻¹	0 V	~100 kHz	1.1 × 10¹⁰(3.8 μm)	⁹⁴
	2020	BP-MoS₂	2-4	PV	0.11 A W⁻¹(3 μm)	0 V	~0.1-1 GHz	1.7 × 10⁹(3.0 μm)	⁹⁵
GQDs graphene quantum dot-like arrays, CQDs colloidal quantum dots, SiQDs Si quantum dots, PV photovoltaic, IPE internal photon emission, DT direct tunneling, F-N tunneling Fowler-Nordheim tunneling, PC photoconductive, PG photo-gating, BOL bolometric, PTE photo-thermoelectric, ILE interlayer exciton, RT room temperature. ^aThe measured values are counted. ^bThe data marked with asterisk () are extracted by using the provided NEP and the device active region area. ^cExtracted by the measured data considering the shot noise and the thermal noise. ^dThe responsivity and the related specific detectivity D may be overestimated because the optical absorption was ignored here. ^eExtracted from the measured value NEP = 1.8 × 10⁻¹¹ W at the modulation frequency of 30 Hz with a device active area of ~210 μm².

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